The Kalmyks: A Handbook (Caucasus World: Peoples of the Caucasus)

But in addition to these well known groups which span Eurasia there are the Northwest Caucasian, Northeast Caucasian, and Kartvelian, families. These have only a local distribution despite their distinctiveness. Mountains often serve as the last refuges of peoples and cultures being submerged elsewhere. For example, in the mountains of northern Pakistan you have the linguistic isolate of Burusho, which has no known affinity with other languages. Likely it once had relatives, but they were assimilated, leaving only this last representative isolated in its alpine fastness.

How the mighty have fallen! But the mountains are always the last fortresses to succumb. But the Caucasus are peculiar for another reason: The ancient ancestors of the Georgians even show up in Greek myth, as the Colchis of Medea. And this was a busy part of the world. Hittite, Greek, Roman, and Arab, came and went. The rise of Turkic resulted in the marginalization of many of its predecessors.

Some scholars even argue that the Indo-European and Semitic languages families issue from the north and south fringes of the Fertile Crescent, respectively. The Georgians faced the brunt of the Mongol armies, while the Circassians have famously been present across the greater Middle East as soldiers and slaves.

Gene Expression

Ultimately it seems that geography can explain much of the sui generis character of the Caucasus in relation to adjacent regions. The homogenizing impact of large political units such as Byzantium, Persia, the great Arab Caliphates, Russia, and the Ottomans, was dampened by the fact that the Caucasus was often administered indirectly. The cost of conquering valley after valley was presumably prohibitive, and the natives could always retreat to the mountains as the Chechens did most recently in the s. A new paper in Molecular Biology and Evolution illuminates the genetic relationship of Caucasian peoples, both within the region, and to groups outside of it.

We analyzed 40 SNP and 19 STR Y-chromosomal markers in a large sample of 1, indigenous individuals from 14 populations in the Caucasus and additional individuals representing potential source populations. We also employed a lexicostatistical approach to reconstruct the history of the languages of the North Caucasian family spoken by the Caucasus populations.

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We found a different major haplogroup to be prevalent in each of four sets of populations that occupy distinct geographic regions and belong to different linguistic branches. The haplogroup frequencies correlated with geography and, even more strongly, with language. Within haplogroups, a number of haplotype clusters were shown to be specific to individual populations and languages.

The data suggested a direct origin of Caucasus male lineages from the Near East, followed by high levels of isolation, differentiation and genetic drift in situ. Comparison of genetic and linguistic reconstructions covering the last few millennia showed striking correspondences between the topology and dates of the respective gene and language trees, and with documented historical events. Overall, in the Caucasus region, unmatched levels of gene-language co-evolution occurred within this geographically isolated populations, probably due to its mountainous terrain.

In some ways this is a paper which would have been more in keeping with the early s. It focuses on Y chromosomal markers, so the direct male lineage. This is contrast to the sort of analyses which focus on hundreds of thousands of autosomal markers across the genome. But there are some benefits to focusing on Y chromosomal lineages, which are highlighted within this paper. First, one can construct very precise trees based on the mutational distance of individuals. Haplogroups can be subdivided cleanly into haplotypes with treelike phylogenetic relationships by comparing mutational differences.

Second, one can use molecular clock methodologies to peg the timing of the separation between two clades. The main step forward here is the enormous sample size and fine-grained coverage of the ethnic groups across the Caucasus. In a region of such linguistic diversity and geographic fragmentation this is of the essence. They found a 0. The following two maps show the distribution of haplogroups across Caucasian populations, as well as how they relate to other groups. A general affinity with Near Eastern groups is evident in this simply through inspection:.

In classic fashion the authors found a very tight correlation between the phylogenetic trees generated from Y chromosomes and linguistics the Dargins being the exception:. Many researchers, such as Marcus Feldman, assume that this sort of correspondence is a natural outgrowth of the fact that gene flow tends to be demarcated by dialect continuums.

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By this I mean that intermarriage between two groups all things equal is going to be favored if there is linguistic comprehensibility. That is until you encounter a language family barrier, where despite borrowings across the chasm intelligibility is simply not possible. In the Balkans the Slavic languages of Bulgarian and Macedonian reputedly exhibit a dialect continuum.

But the barrier between these two languages and Greek is not just one of subtle shading, but deep differences. There are lots of details in the paper, ranging from a synthesis with archaeological evidence for the development of Caucasian cultural complexes derived from Near Eastern sources, to the timing of the separation between the major language families or sub-families.

The weeds here are beyond me to be frank. So what can we conclude from this specific case to the generality? This is focusing on the Y chromosomal lineages, and we must remember that male mediated ancestry can exhibit consistent differences from female mediated ancestry. I no longer am very confident of the finding from comparisons of mtDNA and Y chromosomal variation that the majority of human gene flow has been female mediated because of patrilocality. But this may be at work in some areas. In general the scholars, such as Bryan Sykes, who have looked at the phylogeography of uniparental lineages tend to notice a difference between Y chromosomal and mtDNA patterns, whereby the former were subject to much clearer partitioning between groups e.

Over the short term in the pre-modern world there is a zero sum aspect to this, populations are relatively constant, and so for Genghis Khan to be fruitful other men must be pushed aside. This does not necessarily entail slaughter. Bonded or landless men may not reproduce their genes, or, their reproduction may be sharply diminished.

North Caucasus

A few generations of differential fertility can quickly lead to major differences in the distribution of ancestry. Assume for example that at generation 1 population A outnumbers population B by a factor of Assuming that A has a replication of 0.

We have examples from the New World where Iberian Y chromosomal lineages have totally replaced Amerindian ones among the racially mixed population, while preserving Amerindian mtDNA. In areas with generations of European male migration the total genome content has become overwhelmingly male, but the mtDNA still shows the signature of the founding Amerindian population. I am willing to be that for the Caucasus we would see much less distinction on the mtDNA if the same study was replicated with the same individuals.

The major explanation for why this would not be so from my perspective would be if the original male Near Eastern groups arrived and intermarried with sharply distinctive local female lineages, and these distinctions have been preserved over time through endogamy, whether culturally conditioned language barriers or geographically necessitated. Finally, on the broadest canvass these sorts of findings should make us question the contention that nationality is a totally modern invention. You won't have trouble finding a hotel.

Expect to pay at least rubles a night. There is a lot to see in Grozny. You will need 2 days to see everything, like the Kadyrov monument, the parliament building, the museum of Chechnya, and a few other things. Tourists are still "very rare" in Grozny according to locals as of December At present, Ingushetia is the most dangerous region. Political unrest, civil disorders, and heavy military activity best describes current conditions. A civil war is taking place, and travels should be put on hold until the situation drastically improves.

The authorities commit the most civil disorders, adding on a greater fear. While travelling there in December it was completely safe, though not for the average tourist. If you want to visit Ingushetia or any of the other North Caucasus republics you should at least have basic Russian language skills. Dagestan is one of the least stable and most dangerous destinations. Military activity, high-scale criminality and terrorism are some of the threats to locals and visitors alike.

Any potential visitor should consider carefully whether to steer clear of the republic, as terrorists may attack Dagestan at any time. Cities such as Kizlyar , Kizilyurt and the capital Makhachkala are the most dangerous places. It is generally safer in the north compared to the rest of the region. As of , many policemen and soldiers are cracking down on the militant group present in Dagestan. Khasvyurt is an interesting city. Almost like walking onto a Star Wars movie set. Garbage is literally everywhere. Cows, dogs, and cats scramble around garbage piles for food because there is hardly any food to eat.

Makhachkala is pretty nice. Decent hotels according to Russian standards, with a large move theatre great place to watch Russian movies , parks, and the Caspian sea front. Undercover secret police and military patrol the streets around the government buildings. If you take pictures there you may be interrogated for about 90 minutes and have every part of your life questioned by authorities. Derbent is a nice but small city.

North Caucasus – Travel guide at Wikivoyage

The only thing to see there is the fortress and the large market. One day is definitely sufficient for travel to this city.

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The people in this republic are very nice and welcoming. They are not used to seeing tourists at all and wonder what you are doing there. Attacks in these cities are quite common but kidnappings no longer occur. Only travel to Dagestan if you are an experienced war-zone traveller who has Russian language skills. Like South Ossetia, the northern part is fairly unsafe, though not as unsafe as its southern counterpart. There have been high-profile crimes, albeit infrequently. The capital Vladikavkaz has recently been the site of some showdowns between law enforcement and separatists, though on a very light scale.

A very safe republic to visit if you are an experienced war-zone traveller. People are Orthodox Christian here, not Muslim. However, in the small Muslim population there are many assassinations, mainly against moderate Sufi imams by extremist salafists. The city of Beslan, 15 km north of Vladikavkaz is worth a visit to see the school that terrorists attacked in The gymnasium is now a shrine to the innocent dead. It is also free entry and a 5-minute walk west of the Beslan bus station. Karachay-Cherkessia is safer than most regions; however, the region has continued to see minor attacks.

The republic's mainly Muslim population has become increasingly radicalised by the region's instability. The region is quite safe, though the security of the country may be occasionally shaken, due to frequent attacks by militants. Nalchik in particular has seen a very unstable situation. But as of November and December this city seems quite safe. Yes, people do get killed here but tourists will be fine.

There are nice hotels and everything is within walking distance. There is not much to see and do in Nalchik but the people are very nice. The North Caucasus are largely Sunni Islamic societies, and so you need to behave and act accordingly and properly. The Northern Caucasus is actually pretty difficult to "get out" of.

The borders of all the region's republics are also closely controlled by Russian authorities; expect to be interrogated and bothered at border crossings and frequent roadblocks as to your purpose in traveling in the region. Nevertheless, it is possible to leave for Azerbaijan through one of the two international border crossings in the south of Dagestan both trains and buses cross the border.

You can also enjoy breathtaking mountain vistas on the Georgian Military Road the name is purely historical and does not imply any current military activity on this route that runs from Vladikavkaz in North Ossetia to Tbilisi in Georgia and climbs to nearly m above sea level. Although frequently used nowadays, this road remains a very special experience. The section adjacent to the Russian-Georgian border is in poor condition and may be blocked by avalanches. Unfortunately, this road will not bring you far, because the border between South Ossetia and Georgia is closed for political reasons, so you simply get stuck there and eventually return to North Ossetia.

Otherwise, your way lies back to northern Russian regions. Flights leave from many of the subregional capital cities to Moscow , otherwise, it is easiest to leave as you come in: From Sochi, you can also travel to Abkhazia along the sea coast. Crossing the Abkhazian border from Kabardino-Balkaria directly through the mountains is not possible and will be physically quite difficult anyway.

Some consider the North Caucasus a high-risk destination and not safe for tourists. Note that certain regions—particularly Chechnya, Ingushetia and Dagestan—are no longer considered war zones. While many governments advise against all travel to these regions, state-level risk management does not accurately reflect the situation on the ground. Before traveling, you may wish to consider the "Stay Safe" section below. Chechnya A gorgeous and fascinating region, Chechnya should be welcomed onto travelers' lists as the security situation has markedly improved over the last decade.

Downtown Grozny is an exceptional site and not to be missed. Inhabited by ethnic Chechens, a Caucasian Muslim ethnic group. Dagestan An environment utterly exotic and alien to Russians of the steppe and woodlands, Dagestan boasts astounding cultural diversity, breathtaking and austere mountaintop villages, and an ancient history.